Main Article Content

Abstract

Background: Kinshasa’s urban and peri-urban areas have limited access to water, hygiene, and sanitation. SDG 6 calls for universal and equitable access to WASH by 2030. This situation predisposes pupils to the risk of infection and a drop in their educational performance.


Methods: An analytical cross-sectional study was conducted from May 2024 to Dec. 2024 in the educational provinces of Mont-Amba, Lukunga, and Tshangu, with 149 schools selected using 3-stage probability sampling. The data were analyzed using STATA V17.


Results: This study showed that 32% of the schools had a budget for WASH and a hygiene committee. Ninety percent implemented hygiene and sanitation promotion strategies and policies. Only 5.47% of the schools received WASH intervention. 54% of the schools had a water point, with 73% in urban areas and 23% in peri-urban areas (P =0.000). The study also showed that 96.88% of schools had latrines.


Conclusion: This study focused on identifying the factors that explain low access to WASH services. Only the status of schools and the lack of a budget explained the low access rate to WASH.

Keywords

Water Sanitation Hygiene WASH School Kinshasa

Article Details

Author Biographies

Gilbert Nganga , University of Kinshasa, DRC

Nganga Katshiayi Gilbert is a teaching assistant in the Geomatics and Environmental Engineering Department at the Higher Institute of Education and Technology in Kinshasa. 

Benito Kazenza Maykondo, University of Kinshasa, DRC

Benito Kazenza Maykondo is a teaching assistant in the Department of Nutrition at the Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, DRC.

Henry Mata Kimbembe, University of Kinshasa, DRC

Henry Mata Kimbembe, PhD, Department of Environmental Health, Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo.

How to Cite
Nganga , G., Maykondo, B. K., & Kimbembe, H. M. (2025). Explanatory Factors for Low Access to Water, Hygiene, and Sanitation in Schools in Kinshasa, DR Congo. Pan-African Journal of Health and Environmental Science, 4(1), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.56893/ajhes2025v04i01.06

References

  1. Appiah-Brempong, E., Harris, M. J., Newton, S., & Gulis, G. (2018). Examining school-based hygiene facilities: A quantitative assessment in a Ghanaian municipality. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5491-9
  2. Ashu, E. W., Siysi, V. V., & Shey, N. D. (2021). Water, sanitation, and hygiene practices in secondary schools in the Buea Health District of Cameroon. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology Full, 13(4), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPHE2020.1298
  3. Blanton, E., Ombeki, S., Oluoch, G. O., Mwaki, A., Wannemuehler, K., & Quick, R. (2010). Evaluation of the role of school children in the promotion of point-of-use water treatment and handwashing in schools and households - Nyanza Province, Western Kenya, 2007. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 82(4), 664–671. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0422
  4. Christian, J. R. (2019). Disponibilité et fonctionnalité des infrastructures d ’ hygiène et d ’ assainissement dans des écoles primaires publiques au Bénin. 18(January), 60–71.
  5. Compact, G. (2018). Les 17 Objectifs de développement durable de l’Agenda 2030. In Un défi pour la planète (pp. 13–14). https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.21477
  6. Dieudonne, N. (2016). Évaluation de la mise en œuvre du concept WASH (Water Sanitation and Hygiene) en milieu scolaire: Cas de quelques lycées de la ville de Yaoundé. https://trow.cm/images/Memoires/Environnement/MEMOIRE-129-BDN.pdf
  7. Garn, J. V., Caruso, B. A., Drews-Botsch, C. D., Kramer, M. R., Brumback, B. A., Rheingans, R. D., & Freeman, M. C. (2014). Factors associated with pupil toilet use in Kenyan primary schools. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11(9), 9694–9711. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110909694
  8. Girmay, A. M., Weldegebriel, M. G., Mengesha, S. D., Serte, M. G., Weldetinsae, A., Alemu, Z. A., Dinssa, D. A., Wagari, B., Alemayehu, T. A., Kenea, M. A., Teklu, K. T., Gobena, W., Fikresilassie, G., Adugna, E. A., Tessema, M., & Tollera, G. (2023). Factors influencing access to basic water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in schools of Bishoftu Town, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. Discover Sustainability, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-023-00122-0
  9. Habtegiorgis, Y., Sisay, T., Kloos, H., Malede, A., Yalew, M., Arefaynie, M., Damtie, Y., Kefale, B., Tegegne, T. B., Addisu, E., Lingerew, M., Berhanu, L., Berihun, G., Natnael, T., Abebe, M., Feleke, A., Gizeyatu, A., Ademas, A., Fentaw, Z., … Adane, M. (2021). Menstrual hygiene practices among high school girls in urban areas in Northeastern Ethiopia: A neglected issue in water, sanitation, and hygiene research. PLoS ONE, 16(6 June), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248825
  10. Luxembourgeoise, F. U., Montangero, M. A., & Seignez, M. C. (2002). Microphytes Et À Macrophytes En Afrique De L ’ Ouest Et Du Centre : Etat Des Lieux ,.
  11. Ministere de l’Education Nationale, U. (2017). Situation WASH dans le milieu scolaire au Mali.
  12. Morgan, C. E., Bowling, J. M., Bartram, J., & Kayser, G. L. (2021). Attributes of drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene associated with microbiological water quality of stored drinking water in rural schools in Mozambique and Uganda. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 236, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113804
  13. Nlunda, J.-M. M., Konde, J. N., YambaYamba, M. K., & Kiyombo, G. M. (2023). Assessing School-Based Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Facilities in Peri-Urban Settings of Kinshasa, DR Congo. Open Journal of Epidemiology, 13(01), 24–45. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojepi.2023.131003
  14. Nlunda, J. M. M., Matumona, T. N., Numbi, J. K. N., Kapenga, M. Y. Y., & Mbela, G. K. (2023). Peri-urban schools of Kinshasa before and during COVID-19: an evaluation of water, handwashing facilities, and girl students’ hand hygiene practices. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 13(2), 103–112. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2023.145
  15. Ntiama 2020 Conditions actuelles des écoles primaires et secondaires de la sous-division éducationnelles MasinaII en rapport avec l’eau, hygiène et assainissement, mémoire inédit Pp 71. (2020). 2020.
  16. OMS/UNICEF/JMP. (2006). Eau Potable, Assainissement Et Hygiène En Milieu Scolaire Rapport sur la situation de référence au niveau mondial en 2018. In Conf.
  17. OMS, & UNICEF. (2020). Situation de L ’ ASSAINISSEMENT dans le monde.
  18. Sangalang, S. O., Medina, S. A. J., Ottong, Z. J., Lemence, A. L. G., Totanes, D., Valencia, J. C., Singson, P. A. A., Olaguera, M., Prado, N. O., Ocaña, R. M. Z., Canja, R. J. F., Benolirao, A. J. T., Mariano, S. M. F., Gavieres, J. G., Aquino, C. P., Latag, E. C., Vianca, M., & Anglo, J. C. (2021). Protocol for a Trial Assessing the Impacts of School-Based WaSH Interventions on Children 's Health Literacy , Handwashing , and Nutrition Status in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. 19.
  19. Sibiya, J. E., & Gumbo, J. R. (2013). Knowledge , Attitude and Practices ( KAP ) Survey on Water , Sanitation and Hygiene in Selected Schools in Vhembe District , Limpopo , South Africa. 2282–2295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10062282
  20. Sommer, M., Caruso, B. A., Sahin, M., Calderon, T., & Cavill, S. (2024). A Time for Global Action : Addressing Girls ’ Menstrual Hygiene Management Needs in Schools. Lmic, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001962
  21. Sphère, A. (2018). Le Manuel Sphère. In Www.spherestandards.org/handbook (Ed.), Le Manuel Sphère (Quatrième). https://doi.org/10.3362/9781908176714
  22. Trinies, V., Garn, J. V., Chang, H. H., & Freeman, M. C. (2016). The impact of a school-based water, sanitation, and hygiene program on absenteeism, diarrhea, and respiratory infection: A matched-control trial in Mali. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(6), 1418–1425. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0757
  23. Tsige, W., Kummie, A., & Dejene, T. (2019). Environment Pollution and Climate Change Status of School Sanitation Service and Factors Affecting School Water , Sanitation and Hygiene Services : A School-Based Cross-Sectional Study. 2(4), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2573-458X.1000168
  24. UNICEF. (2012). Eau, Assainissement et Hygiène (WASH) dans les écoles. https://www.unicef.org/cfs/files/CFS_WASH_Fr_Web_Final.pdf
  25. UNICEF. (2023). The status of water access, sanitation, and hygiene in schools: A cross sectional survey to identify capacities and assess coverage in Garoua, North Cameroon. PLOS Water, 2(8), e0000146. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000146
  26. USAID. (2016). Partnerships : A Key Strategy to Increase Impact and Results. March.
  27. USAID. (2020). Eau, assainissement et hygiène. Sanitation and water for all, 1–16.
  28. WHO/UNICEF. (2019). Surveillance of water, sanitation and hygiene in schools: A practical tool. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, 1–115. https://apps.who.int/
  29. WHO, & UNICEF. (2023). Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP). http://apps.who.int/bookorders.