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Abstract
Background: In Marsabit County, pastoralists face challenges such as scarce clean water, proper hygiene, inadequate sanitation, and limited socioeconomic well-being. This study assessed the effects of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) initiatives by faith-based organizations (FBOs) on pastoral livelihoods in Marsabit County. The study was guided by three objectives: To assess the extent to which faith-based organizations’ water sanitation and hygiene initiatives enhanced access to adequate safe and clean water among pastoral communities in Saku, Sub County, Marsabit County, Kenya, to evaluate the extent to which faith-based organizations’ water sanitation and hygiene initiatives enhanced changes in sanitation facilities and hygiene practices among pastoral communities in Saku Sub County, Marsabit County, Kenya and to examine the extent to which faith-based organizations’ water sanitation and hygiene initiatives enhanced food security and income generation among pastoralists in Saku Sub County, Marsabit County, Kenya.
Method: Using a stratified sampling technique, the study's target population comprised 2004 individuals and a representative sample of 323 household heads. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from household heads. Thematic analysis was applied to explain the questionnaire responses further, incorporating qualitative data gathered from two Key Informant Interviews and two Focus Group Discussions.
Results: The main findings revealed enhanced access to safe and clean water, hygienic sanitation, food, and improved income for the targeted community.
Conclusion: This study confirmed that WASH initiatives enhanced the livelihoods of the target population. To further reinforce pastoral livelihoods, concerted interventions by the government is necessary for larger infrastructure.
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References
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- Bradshaw, T. K. (2006). Theories of Poverty and Anti-Poverty Programs in Community Development. Colombia: Rural Poverty Research Centre.
- Buttimer, A. (2003). Renaissance and re-membering geography: pioneering ideas of Alexander Von Humboldt 1769–1859. South African Geographical Journal, 85(2), 125-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2003.9713792
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- Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design (4 ed.). Sage.
- Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (3 ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.
- Desilie, D., & Rangama, J. (2014). Designing and Implementing a Hygiene awareness-raising and Sanitation Promotion Strategy: Guidlines for Action. Programme Salidarite EAU.
- FAO. (2017). Resilience Analysis in Isiolo, Marsabit, and Meru. Analysing Resileince for Targeting and Action. https://www.fao.org/3/i6892en/I6892EN.pdf
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- Heymann, M. (2010). The evolution of climate ideas and knowledge. WIREs Climate Change, 1(4), 581-597. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.61
- Howard, G., Nijhawan , A., Flint, A., Baidya, M., Pregnolato, M., Ghimire , A., . . . Wondim , T. (2021). The How Tough is WASH Framework for Assessing the Climate Resilience of Water and Sanitation. Clean Water, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-021-00130-5
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- Jennings, G. R. (2015). Semistructured Interviews. Business, Social SCience Methods Used in, 2019-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/BO-12-369398-5/00270-x
- Kelly , E., Lee, K., Shields , K. F., Cronk, R., Behnke, N., Klug, T., & Bartram, J. (2017). The role of social capital and sense of ownership in rural communitymanaged water systems: Qualitative evidence from Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia. Journal of Rural Studies, 156-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.08.021
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- Moraine, M., Duru, M., Nicholas, P., Leterme, P., & Therond, O. (2014). Farming system design for innovative crop-livestock integration in Europe. Animal : An International Journal of Animal Bioscience, 8(8), 1204–1217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114001189
- Mwongera, C. (2022, 08 08). Empowering Women to Boost Africa’s Water Security. Africa Renewal. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/august-2022/empowering-women-boost-africa’s-water-security
- Nelson, S., Drabarek, D., Jenkins, A., Negin, J., & Abimbola, S. (2021). How community participation in water and sanitation interventions impacts human health, WASH infrastructure and service longevity in low-income and middle-income countries: a realist review. BMJ open, 11(12), e053320. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-053320
- Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Abdalla, H., . . . Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country Situation Assessment. Nairobi: PRISE.
- Osore, M. K., Hassan, F. A., & Morara, G. N. (2022). Perceived benefits and barriers to community participation in development projects: The Case of Hazina ya Maendeleo ya Pwani on the Kenyan Coast. WIO Journal of Marine Science, 21(1), 35-49.
- Osumanu, I. K., Aniah, P., & Yelfaanibe, A. (2017, 10). Determinants of adaptive capacity to climate change among smallholder rural households in the Bongo District, Ghana. Ghana Journal of Development Studies, 14(2), 142-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjds.v14i2.8
- Péaud, L. (2011). Alexander von Humboldt / Carl Ritter. Briefwechsel. Päßler, Ulrich (ed.). Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2011.00390.x
- Qazi, U., & Anwar, S. (2019). Hand washing behavior change effect of community-based hygiene and sanitation intervention in low resource setting. Journal of PUblic Health, 43(2), 381-384. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdz130
- Singh, K. (2022, 05 2022). Strabo’s Contribution to Geography. https://pangeography.com/strabos-contribution-to-geography/
- Stehr, N. (1998). Climate Determines: An Anatomy of a Disbanded Line of Research. Vancouver: Sustainable Research Development Institute, The University of British Columbia.
- Tsekleves, E., Braga , F. M., Abongec , C., Santana , M., Pickup , R., Anchangf, K. Y., . . . Roy, M. (2022, 1 17). Community engagement in water, sanitation and hygiene in sub-Saharan Africa: Des it WASH? Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(2), 146-156. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.136
- United Nations. (2018). Sustainable Development Goal 6:Synthesis Report on Water and Sanitation. United Nations.
- Wainaina, L. W. (2018). Understanding the coping mechanisms adopted by pastoralists in context of recurring drought: A case study of Marsabit Kenya [Masters Dissertation, Oxford Brookes University]. Institutional Repository of Oxford Brookes University, https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/
- Whitley, L., Hutchings, P., Cooper, S., Parker, A., Kebede, A., Joseph, S., Butterworth, J., Van Koppen, B., & Mulejaa, A. (2019). A framework for targeting water, sanitation and hygiene interventions in pastoralist populations in the Afar region of Ethiopia. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(8), 1133–1144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.08.001
- World Concern. (2020). One Village Transformed (OVT) Samburu. https://www.ngoaidmap.orgprojects22178
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- WHO. (2017). Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. JMP.
- World Health Organization. (2022). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. (F. E. Addenda, Ed.) Geneva: WHO.
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References
Abdulai, A.-M., & Shamshiry, E. (2014). Theory and practice on the nexus between poverty, natural resources and governance. In Linking Sustainable Livelihoods to Natural Resources and Governance (pp. 11-40). Springer Nature.
Bradshaw, T. K. (2006). Theories of Poverty and Anti-Poverty Programs in Community Development. Colombia: Rural Poverty Research Centre.
Buttimer, A. (2003). Renaissance and re-membering geography: pioneering ideas of Alexander Von Humboldt 1769–1859. South African Geographical Journal, 85(2), 125-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2003.9713792
Chimhowu, A. O. (2009). Poverty: Geographical theory of poverty. In International Encylopedia of Human Geography (pp. 408-415). Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/geographical-theory
County Governmnet of Marsabit. (2018). Climate Change Mainstream Guidelines: Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Sector. Marsabit: County Goverment of Marsabit.
County Integrated Development Plan. (2013-2017). Revised First County Integrated Development Plan. Marsabit: County Goverment, Marsabit.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design (4 ed.). Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research (3 ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.
Desilie, D., & Rangama, J. (2014). Designing and Implementing a Hygiene awareness-raising and Sanitation Promotion Strategy: Guidlines for Action. Programme Salidarite EAU.
FAO. (2017). Resilience Analysis in Isiolo, Marsabit, and Meru. Analysing Resileince for Targeting and Action. https://www.fao.org/3/i6892en/I6892EN.pdf
Githinji , G. M., Otieno, D. J., Ogutu , C. A., Mureithi, S., & Bostedt, G. (2019). Understanding the livelihood challenges and diversification options in pastoral areas: Evidence from Laikipia County, Kenya. 6th African Conference of Agricultural Economists,. Abuja.
Heymann, M. (2010). The evolution of climate ideas and knowledge. WIREs Climate Change, 1(4), 581-597. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.61
Howard, G., Nijhawan , A., Flint, A., Baidya, M., Pregnolato, M., Ghimire , A., . . . Wondim , T. (2021). The How Tough is WASH Framework for Assessing the Climate Resilience of Water and Sanitation. Clean Water, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-021-00130-5
Hutton, G., & Chase, C. (2017). Water supply, sanitation and hygiene. In C. Mock, R. Nugent, O. Kobusinyge, & S. R. Kirk (Eds.), Injury Prevention and Environmental Health (3 ed., Vol. 7). International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
IFRC. (2023). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). https://www.ifrc.org/our-work/health-and-care/water-sanitation-and-hygiene-wash
Jennings, G. R. (2015). Semistructured Interviews. Business, Social SCience Methods Used in, 2019-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/BO-12-369398-5/00270-x
Kelly , E., Lee, K., Shields , K. F., Cronk, R., Behnke, N., Klug, T., & Bartram, J. (2017). The role of social capital and sense of ownership in rural communitymanaged water systems: Qualitative evidence from Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia. Journal of Rural Studies, 156-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.08.021
Keneilwe , R. K., Lekota, P. C., & Olaotswe , E. K. (2018). Agro-pastoralists’ determinants of adaptation to climate change. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 10(3), 488-500.
Kenya Vision 2030. (2018). Marking 10 years of Progress (2008-2018). Nairobi: Government of the Republic of Kenya.
Komote, A. S., & Ondieki, F. M. (2017, 04 17). The effect of alternative livelihood strategies on social and economic outcomes of pastoral communties of Saku Sub-County in Marsabit County. International Academic Journal of Information Sciences and Project Management, 2(1), 17-37.
Kumar, S. (2022). A Hand Book on Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) for Impact Investtors. Luxemburg: e-MFP WASH Action Group.
Kumwenda, S. (2019). Challenges to Hygiene improvement in developing countries. 1-18. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80355
Lekapana, P. L. (2013). Socioeconomic impact of drought on pastoralists, their coping machanism and government interventions in Marsabit County, Kenya [Masters thesis, University of Nairobi]. University of Nairobi Digital Repository. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/57940
Makoni, F. (2021). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Kenya. Nairobi: World Vision.
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperatives. (2021). Summary Project Report for Proposed Construction of Ambalo Community Water Pan in Marsabit County: Program to Build Resilence For Food and Nutrition security in the Horn of Africa-Kenya. Nairobi: Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperatives.
M'Mbogori, F. N., Kinyua, M. G., Ibrae, A. G., & Lane, P. J. (2022). Changes to water management and declining pastoral resilience in Marsabit County, northern Kenya: The example of Gabra wells. WIREs Water, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1609
MoALF. (2017). Climate Risk Profile for Marsabit County. Nairobi, Kenya: The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF).
Moraine, M., Duru, M., Nicholas, P., Leterme, P., & Therond, O. (2014). Farming system design for innovative crop-livestock integration in Europe. Animal : An International Journal of Animal Bioscience, 8(8), 1204–1217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114001189
Mwongera, C. (2022, 08 08). Empowering Women to Boost Africa’s Water Security. Africa Renewal. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/august-2022/empowering-women-boost-africa’s-water-security
Nelson, S., Drabarek, D., Jenkins, A., Negin, J., & Abimbola, S. (2021). How community participation in water and sanitation interventions impacts human health, WASH infrastructure and service longevity in low-income and middle-income countries: a realist review. BMJ open, 11(12), e053320. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-053320
Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Abdalla, H., . . . Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country Situation Assessment. Nairobi: PRISE.
Osore, M. K., Hassan, F. A., & Morara, G. N. (2022). Perceived benefits and barriers to community participation in development projects: The Case of Hazina ya Maendeleo ya Pwani on the Kenyan Coast. WIO Journal of Marine Science, 21(1), 35-49.
Osumanu, I. K., Aniah, P., & Yelfaanibe, A. (2017, 10). Determinants of adaptive capacity to climate change among smallholder rural households in the Bongo District, Ghana. Ghana Journal of Development Studies, 14(2), 142-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjds.v14i2.8
Péaud, L. (2011). Alexander von Humboldt / Carl Ritter. Briefwechsel. Päßler, Ulrich (ed.). Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2011.00390.x
Qazi, U., & Anwar, S. (2019). Hand washing behavior change effect of community-based hygiene and sanitation intervention in low resource setting. Journal of PUblic Health, 43(2), 381-384. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdz130
Singh, K. (2022, 05 2022). Strabo’s Contribution to Geography. https://pangeography.com/strabos-contribution-to-geography/
Stehr, N. (1998). Climate Determines: An Anatomy of a Disbanded Line of Research. Vancouver: Sustainable Research Development Institute, The University of British Columbia.
Tsekleves, E., Braga , F. M., Abongec , C., Santana , M., Pickup , R., Anchangf, K. Y., . . . Roy, M. (2022, 1 17). Community engagement in water, sanitation and hygiene in sub-Saharan Africa: Des it WASH? Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 12(2), 146-156. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2022.136
United Nations. (2018). Sustainable Development Goal 6:Synthesis Report on Water and Sanitation. United Nations.
Wainaina, L. W. (2018). Understanding the coping mechanisms adopted by pastoralists in context of recurring drought: A case study of Marsabit Kenya [Masters Dissertation, Oxford Brookes University]. Institutional Repository of Oxford Brookes University, https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/
Whitley, L., Hutchings, P., Cooper, S., Parker, A., Kebede, A., Joseph, S., Butterworth, J., Van Koppen, B., & Mulejaa, A. (2019). A framework for targeting water, sanitation and hygiene interventions in pastoralist populations in the Afar region of Ethiopia. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(8), 1133–1144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.08.001
World Concern. (2020). One Village Transformed (OVT) Samburu. https://www.ngoaidmap.orgprojects22178
World Food Program [WFP] (2018). Water Management for Building Resilient Livelihoods in the Arid Zones:Field Practitioners Guide No.1. Rural Resilent Programme. Nairobi: World Food Programme.
WHO. (2017). Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. JMP.
World Health Organization. (2022). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. (F. E. Addenda, Ed.) Geneva: WHO.
World Vision Australia. (2022). Access to Safe Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation are Vital for Health, Especially among Children. World Vision https://www.worldvision.com.au/global-issues/work-we-do/climate-change/clean-water-sanitation